facts about india

                                                   INDIA

India is a country in South Asia. It is the Seventh-Largest country by area and second-largest by population and most populous democracy in the world.

About India.






Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated there, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture.

India got its independence on August 15th, 1947. It was the day when the Indians got liberated from the rule of the British.

Agriculture is not only the dominant occupations of the people of India but is also one of the most important economic sectors for the country. 

Amazing Facts About India

• India is the world's largest, oldest, continuous civilization.
• India is the world's Largest democracy.
• India never invaded any country in her last 1000 years of history.
• India invented the number system. Zero was invented by Aryabhatta.
• When many cultures were only nomadic forest dwellers over 5000 years ago, Indians established Harappan culture in Sindhu Valley (Indus Valley Civilization)
• There are 300,000 active mosques in India , more than in any other country, including the Muslim world
• Sanskrit is the mother of all the European Languages . Sanskrit is the most suitable language for computer software - a report in Forbes magzine July 1987.
• Chess (Shataranja or AshtaPada) was invented in India.
• India has the second largest pool of Scientist and Engineers in the World.
• India is the largest English speaking nation in the world.
• India is the only country other than US and Japan, to have built a super computer indeigenously.
• India has the largest number of Post Offices in the world
• One of the largest employer in the world is the Indian Railways , employing over a million people
• India was one of the richest countries till the time of British rule in the early 17th Century. Christopher Columbus, attracted by India's wealth, had come looking for a sea route to India when he discovered America by mistake.
• The Baily Bridge is the highest bridge in the world. It is located in the Ladakh valley between the Dras and Suru rivers in the Himalayan mountains. It was built by the Indian Army in August 1982
• The Vishnu Temple in the city of Tirupathi built in the 10th century, is the world's largest religious pilgrimage destination. Larger than either Rome or Mecca, an average of 30,000 visitors donate $6 million (US) to the temple everyday.
• Varanasi, also known as Benaras, was called "the Ancient City" when Lord Buddha visited it in 500 B.C., and is the oldest, continuously inhabited city in the world today.
• Martial Arts were first created in India, and later spread to Asia by Buddhist missionaries.
• Yoga has its origins in India and has existed for over 5,000 years.

   Interesting Facts About India:

• The name 'India' is derived from the River Indus, the valleys around which were the home of the early settlers. The Aryan worshippers referred to the river Indus as the Sindhu.
• The Persian invaders converted it into Hindu. The name 'Hindustan' combines Sindhu and Hindu and thus refers to the land of the Hindus
• Algebra, Trigonometry and Calculus are studies, which originated in India.
• The world's highest cricket ground is in Chail, Himachal Pradesh. Built in 1893 after leveling a hilltop, this cricket pitch is 2444 meters above sea level
• Ayurveda is the earliest school of medicine known to mankind. The Father of Medicine, Charaka, consolidated Ayurveda 2500 years ago.
• India exports software to 90 countries.
• Jainism and Buddhism were founded in India in 600 B.C. and 500 B.C. respectively.
• Islam is India's and the world's second largest religion.
• Jews and Christians have lived continuously in India since 200 B.C. and 52 A.D. respectively
• Sikhism originated in the Holy city of Amritsar in Punjab. Famous for housing the Golden Temple, the city was founded in 1577.

  History of India:

India’s history and culture is ancient and dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization.Indian History in Short:-
The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread through in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, from 3300 BC to 1300 BC. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BC and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas.

In the fifth century, large parts of India were united under Ashoka. He also converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread to other parts of the Asia. In the reign of Mauryas, Hinduism took shape fundamentally.

In the eight century Islam came to India and by the 11th century it firmly established itself in India. The North Indian dynasties of the Lodhis, Tughlaqs, and numerous others, whose remains are visible in Delhi and scattered elsewhere around North India, were finally succeeded by the Mughal empire, under which India once again achieved a large measure of political unity.

The European presence in India date to the seventeenth century, and it is in the latter part of this century that the Mughal empire began to disintegrate, paving the way for regional states.

During the first half of the 20th century, a natiowide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan. 

The History of India can be broadly divided into following three categories.

Ancient India:

Introudction

The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated sub-continent bounded on the north by the world's largest mountain range-the chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world.
The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India's centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic and economic importance.
India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population.

In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:-

1. Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.
2. Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India
3. Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India
4. Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa
5. Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa

The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.
The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotusobserved that "of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population."

Sources of Ancient Indian History:

Sources of ancient Indian History can be described under the following five headings:-

1. Literary Sources: The ancient Indian literature were mostly religious in nature and contains no definite date for events and kings eg. the Puranas and the epics. Vedic literature has no trace of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and civilisation of the age. The epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Jaina and Buddhist religious texts supply us with some important historical material with doses of religious messeges.Upanishadas: Main source of Indian philosophy; also called "Vedantas"
   Jaina Parisistapravana, Buddhist Dwipavamsa and Mahavamsa contain traditions which supply us some historical materials. Gargi Samhita , a book on astronomy, the grammer of Panini and Patanjali also contain materials that help us in the recontruction of the history of the ancient period of India.
   From the second half of the ancient period of Indian history, there are not only panegyrics of kings and emperors but also political treatises dealing with the principles of administration. Kautilya's Arthasastra andManusmriti may be mentioned in this connection. It was a work of the Maurya period. Vishakhadatta'sMudrarakshasa gives a glimpse of Maurya society and culture. Similarly, events of the Pushyamitra Sunga's reign are mentioned by Kalidasa in Malvikagnimitram. Among the personal accounts of ancient period, Banabhatta's Harshacharita , dealing with the character and achievements of Harshvardhana as also history of his times, Bakpatiraja's Gaudabaho describings how Yasovarman conquered Gauda deserves special mention. Poet Bilhana described the history of the reign of Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI in his Vikramanka Charita . Sandhyaakar Nandi's Ramacharita is a description of the reign of Rampal, a king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. Kalhana's Rajatarangini is a valuable book on the history of the kings of Kashmir. Likewise, Padmagupta's Nabasahasanka Charita, Hem Chandra's Dwasraya Kavya , Nyaya Chandra's Hammir Kavya , Ballal's Bhoja Prabandha contains important historical materials.

         2.Archaeological Evidence :The archaeological evidence is obtained by        the systematic and skilled examination of building monuments, and work of art. The credit for excavating the pre-Aryan past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society of Bengal (established on 1st January 1784). General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its Royal Engineers, dugged out the ruins of ancient site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in India in 1831, Cunningham, the Father of Indian Archaeology devoted every minute he could spare from his military duties to the study of material remains of ancient India, until in 1862, the Indian government established the post of Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was appointed. Until his retirement in 1885, he devoted himself to the unravelling of India's past with complete single-heartedness.
In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the Archaeological Survey and appoint John Marshall its Director General. The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the biggest achievement of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which were noticed by Cunningham. The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the civilisation as the Indus Valley Civilisation.

1. In 1922, an Indian officer of the Archaeological Survey, R.D.Banerjee, founded further seals at Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and recongnized that they were remains of a pre-Aryan civilisation of great antiquity. Under Sir John Marshall's direction, the sites were systematically excavated from 1924 until his retirement in 1931.
   
   
   
   
   
2. Inscriptions : Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence and their study is called epigraphy . These are mostly carved on gold, silver, iron, copper, bronze plates or stone pillars, rocks temple walls and bricks and are free from interpolations. Inscriptions again are mainly of three types:- royal eulogy, official documents like royal rescripts, boundary marks, deeds, gift, etc. and private records of votive, donative or dedicative type.Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telgu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered. But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts.
   James Prinsep, the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in deciphering the Brahmi script. Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor Ashoka are by far the best historical evidence about his reign. Inscriptions of Kharvela, king of Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana, Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, are important evidences for the reconstruction of the history of India.
   
   Coins : The study of coins is known as numismatics. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has been possible to understand the contemporary political history. Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins and Lion-slayer coins gives us an idea of his ambition and love of hunting.
   
   Accounts of the Foreigners : A great deal of our knowledge of ancient Indian History are supplemented by the writing of foreigners.

   National Freedom Movement:

The national freedom movement in India started in the second half of the 19th century. However uprising with motive of driving British out of India had started a century earlier. The communilative effect of British policies, economic exploitation, and administrative renovations over the years had adversely affected the position of all rulers of Indian states, zamidars , peasents, traders, pundits , etc.

During the 19th century, the Revolt of 1857 was the most important as it was the first major challenge to the British domination.

The origin of freedom movement in India had its strong foundation in the growth of nationalism in the country in the ninetenth century. The first war of independence fought in 1857 had national spirit and relfected the people's acute urge to throw off the torturous yoke of alien rule.

Factors for emergence national freedom movement:-

1. Religious Awakening
2. The influence of Western Education
3. Emergence of Indian Press
4. Econnomic Exploitation

Revolt of 1857:

Revolt of 1857: The causes of revolt:

1. Political Causes:
   1. Growing suspicion among native rulers over Lord Dalhousie's policies of "Doctrine of Lapse" and Annexation of the Territories of Native Rulers
   2. Annexation of Avadh on the ground of "misgovernance"
   3. Disposing of Nawab Wazid Ali Shah, athe reigning ruler of Avadh
   4. Lord canning's announcement to that Mughals would lose the title of King and be mere Princess
   5. Disbanding of the Pindaris and irregular soliders who constitued a large section among the army ranks
2. Administrative and economic causes:
1. Inefficient administrative machinery of the company
2. Rampant corruption
3. Racialism in civil and military administration
4. Deprivation of the traditional ruling classes of their luxury due to the establishment of the company's suzerainty over the Indian states;
5. Introduction of new and revenue system which snatched the land from cultivator and gave it to the moneylender or traitor
6. De-industrialisation of the country

1. Military causes :
   1. Dispenser of Indian sepoys with alien rule
   2. Compulsion of the sepoys to serve at the cantonments
   3. Withdrawal of free postage facility to sepoys following the enactment of Post Office Act of 1854
   4. Debarring the foreign service allowance or batta for sepoys serving in Sindh and Punjab
   5. Racial discrimination.
2. Social and Religious causes :
   1. Social discrimination of the British against Indians
   2. Spread of Christianity through missionaries
   3. Enactment of the Religious Dis-abilities act 1850, which enabled a convert to inherit his ancestral property
   4. Antagonism of the traditional Indian society into to the law prohibiting sati, child marriage and female infanticide.
3. The Immediate cause: - Greased Cartridges: The government introduced a new Enfield rifle the Army. It's cartridges had a greased paper cover which had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into the rifle. It was believed that increase was composed of beef and pig fat. The Hindu as well as Muslim sepoys was enraged because the use of greased cartridges was against their religion and they feared that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religion and convert to Christianity. The time to rebel has come.

Causes for the failure of Revolt :

By July 1858, the revolt was completely suppressed. Following factors may be the reason for the failure of revolt:

• Lack of coordination and central leadership. The revolt was supposed to have started on May 31, 1857 as decided by Nana Saheb and his colleagues. But the Merrut incidence led to early breaking of the revolt
• Lack of forward looking program.
• Indian leaders lacked resources and experience as compared to British.
• Lack of support and martial races of the North
• British power have remained intact in the eastern, western and southern parts of India from where the forces were sent to suppress the revolt
• Tacit support of certain sections of Indian public.
• Limited territorial and base.
• Many native Indian states, influenced by the example of powerful Hyderabad, did not join the revolt.
• Sikh soldiers of the Punjab area remained loyal to the British throughout.
• The aging Bahadur Shah was neither a brave general not an astute leader of people.

Impacts of the Revolt : The impacts of the 1857 revolt may be summarised as

• In August 1850, the British Parliament passed an act for Better Government of India, 1858, which put an end to the rule of the Company. The control of the British government in India was transfered to the British Crown.
• A minister of British government, called the Secretary of State, was made responsible for the Government of India.
• The British Governor general of India was now also given the title of Viceroy, who was also the representative of the Monarch.
• Marked the end of British imperialism and Princely states were assured against annexation. Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn.
• Marked the end of Peshwaship and the Mughal rule.
• After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of divide and rule.
• Far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase of white soldiers in the army.
• Total expense of the suppression of the Revolt was borne by the Indians.

Revolt in Western India:

Revolts in Western India:

Bhai Rising in 1817-1819: The Bhils, an aboriginal tribe of Western Ghats with their strongholds in Khandesh, revolted against their new master, the English East India Company, fearing agrarian hardships under the new regime. The British crushed the revolt. However, the Bhils encouraged by the British reverses in the Burmese war again revolted under the leadership of Sewaram in 1825 signifying the popular character of the discontent.

Koli Rising: -The Kolis, the neighbours of the Bhils, also resented the imposition of British rule, dismantlement of their forests and the new order of administration and caused widespread employment. The Kolis rose in rebellion in 1829, in 1839 and once again during 1844-1848.

Cutch Rebellion: In 1819, a British force defeated and deposed Rao Bharmal in favour of his infact son. The actual administration of Cutch was undertaken by Council of Regency under the superintendence of the British Resident.

Waghera Rising: Besides the resentment against the foreign rule, the exactions of the Gaekward of Baroda supported by the British Government compelled the Waghera chief to take up arms. The Wagheras carried on inroads with British territory during 1818-1819. A peace treaty was concluded in November 1820.

Ramosi Rising: The Ramosis, the hill tribes in the Western Chats, resented British rule and the British pattern of administration. In 1822, under Chittur Singh, they revolted and plundered the country around Satara. There were revolts again during 1825-1826 and the area remained disturbed till 1829. The disturbance erupted again in 1840-1841 over deposition and banishment of Raja Pratap Singh of Satara in September 1839. A superior Britishh force restored order in the area.

Satara revolt: The people of Satara rose in revolt under Dhar Rao in 1840, because the popular ruler of Satara Pratap Singh was deposed and banished by the British. Narsing Patekar led revolt in 1844. He was defeated and captured by the British.

Bundela Revolt: Due to the revenue policy of British, the Bundelas rose in revolt under Madhukar Shah and Jawahar Singh in 1842. Mahukar Shah was captured and executed by the British. 

Gadkari Revolt: Assumption of direct administration of Kolhapur by the British created resentment among Gadkaris, who rose in revolt in Kolhapur. This revolt was suppressed finally by the British.

Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolt: The Gadkaris, the hereditary military class which garrisoned Maratha forts, were disbanded under administrative reorganisation in the Kolhapur statte after 1844. Faced with the spectre of unemployment the Gadkaris rose in revolt and occupied the forts of Samangarh Bhudargarh. Similarly, the simmer discontent caused a revolt in Savantvadi. 

Constitution of India and Polity:

The present constitution of India was framed by the Constitution Assembly of India setup under Cabinet Mission Plan of May 16, 1946.

Composition of Constituent Assembly:-

• The Constituent Assembly consisted of 385 members, of which 292 were elected by he elected members of the Provincial Legislative Assemblies while 93 members were nominated by the Princely States. To these were to be added a representative each from the four Chief Commissioners Provinces of Delhi, Ajmer-Marwar, Coorg and British Baluchistan.
• Each Province and each Indian State or group of States were allotted the total number of seas proportional to their respective population roughly in the ration of one to a million.
• B N Rao was appointed the Constitutional Advisor of the Assembly.
• The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly took place of Dec 9, 1946 with Dr. Sachidanand Sinha as its interim President. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as its President n Dec 11, 1947.
• The Assembly framing the Constitution.had 13 Committees.
• The all-important Drafting Committee, which bore the responsibility of drafting the Constitutional document during the recess of the Constitutent Assembly, from July 1947 to September 1948, was formed on August 29, 1947. Its members were:
  1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
  2. N. Gopalaswami Ayyar
  3. K.M. Munshi
  4. Syyed Mohd. Saadulla
  5. N.Madhav Rao
  6. D.P.Khaitan (T Krishnamachari, after Kahitan’s Death in 1948)
• It was finally passed and accepted on Nov 26, 1949. The session of the Assembly was held on Jan 24, 1950, which unanimously elected Dr, Rajendra Prasad as the President of India. In all the 284 members of the Assembly signed the official copies of the Indian Constitution which came into effect on Jan 26, 1950, known and celebrated as the Republic Day of India.

PREAMBLE TO THE CONSTITUTION.

The Indian Constitution starts with the preamble which outlines the main objectives of the Constitution. It reads:
" WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC, REPUBLIC and to secure all its citizens."
JUSTICE, social economic and political.
LIBERTY, of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.
EQUALITY, of status and of opportunity, and to promote among them all.
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and unity and integrity of the nation.
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, this twenty sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, "ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES HIS CONSTITUTION ".

Idea of preamble borrowed from Constitution of US.
The words ‘SOCIALIST’, ‘SECULAR’ and ‘UNITY’ & ‘INTEGRITY’ were added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976.
Preamble is not justifiable.

BORROWED FEATURES OF CONSTITUTION.

Following are the borrowed features of constitution from different countries.

From U.K.	Nominal Head – President (like Queen) Cabinet System of Ministers Post of PM Parliamentary Type of Govt. Bicameral Parliament Lower House more powerful Council of Ministers responsible to Lowe House Speaker in Lok Sabha
From U.S.	Written Constitution Executive head of state known as President and his being the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces Vice- President as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha Fundamental Rights Supreme Court Provision of States Independence of Judiciary and judicial review Preamble Removal of Supreme court and High court Judges
From USSR	Fundamental Duties Five year Plan
From AUSTRALIA	Concurrent list Language of the preamble Provision regarding trade, commerce and intercourse
From JAPAN	Law on which the Supreme Court function
From WEIMAR CONSTITUION OF GERMANY	Suspension of Fundamental Rights during the emergency
From CANADA	Scheme of federation with a strong centre Distribution of powers between centre and the states and placing. Residuary Powers with the centre
From IRELAND	Concept of Directive Principles of States Policy(Ireland borrowed it from SPAIN) Method of election of President Nomination of members in the Rajya Sabha by the President

SCHEDULES IN CONSTITUTION:

Followings are the schedules in Constitution of India

First Schedule	List of States & Union Territories
Second Schedule	Salary of President, Governors, Chief Judges, Judges of High Court and Supreme court, Comptroller and Auditor General
Third Schedule	Forms of Oaths and affirmations
Fourth Schedule	Allocate seats for each state of India in Rajya Sabha
Fifth Schedule	Administration and control of scheduled areas and tribes
Sixth Schedule	Provisions for administration of Tribal Area in Asom, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram & Arunachal Pradesh
Seventh Schedule	Gives allocation of powers and functions between Union & States. It contains 3 lists Union List (For central Govt) 97 Subjects. States List (Powers of State Govt) 66 subjects Concurrent List (Both Union & States) 47 subjects.
Eighth Schedule	List of 22 languages of India recognized by Constitution 1. Assamese 2. Bengali 3. Gujarati 4. Hindi 5. Kannada 6. Kashmiri 7. Manipuri 8. Malayalam 9. Konkani 10. Marathi 11. Nepali 12. Oriya 13. Punjabi 14. Sanskrit 15. Sindhi 16. Tamil 17. Telugu 18. Urdu 19. Santhali 20. Bodo 21. Maithili 22. Dogri Sindhi was added in 1967 by 21 Amendment Konkani, Manipuri ad Nepali were added in 1992 by 71 amendment Santhali, Maithili, Bodo and Dogri were added in 2003 by 92 amendment
Ninth Schedule	Added by Ist amendment in 1951. Contains acts & orders related to land tenure, land tax, railways, industries.{Right of property not a fundamental right now}
Tenth Schedule	Added by 52nd amendment in 1985. Contains provisions of disqualification of grounds of defection
Eleventh Schedule	By 73rd amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of Panchayati Raj.
Twelfth Schedule	By 74thamendment in 1992. Contains provisions of Municipal Corporation.

NEW STATES IN INDIA CREATED AFTER 1950

Following are the new states in India created after 1950.

Andhra Pradesh	Created by the State of Andhra Pradesh Act 1953 by carving our some areas from the State of Chennai
Gujarat and Maharashtra	The State of Mumbai was divided into two States i.e. Maharashtra and Gujarat by the Mumbai (Reorganisation) Act 1960
Kerala	Created by the State Reorganisation Act, 1956. It comprised Travancor and Cochin areas
Karnataka	Created from the Princely State of Mysuru by the State Reorganisation Act, 1956. It was renamed Karnataka in 1973
Nagaland	It was carved out from the State of Asom by the State of Nagaland Act, 1952
Haryana	It was carved out from the State of Punjab by the Punjab (Reorganisation) Act, 1966
Himachal Pradesh	The Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh was elevated to the status of State by the State of Himachal Pradesh Act, 1970
Meghalaya	First carved out as a sub-State within the State of Asom by 23 Constitutional Amendment Act, 1969. Later in 1971, it received the status of a full-fledged State by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act 1971
Manipura and Tripura	Both these States were elevated from the status of Union-Territories by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act 1971
Sikkim	Sikkim was first given the Status of Associate State by the 35th Constitutional Amendment Act 1974. It got the status of a full State in 1975 by the 36th Amendment Act, 1975
Mizoram	It was elevated to the status of a full State by the State of Mizoram Act, 1986
Arunachal Pradesh	It received the status of a full state by the State of Arunachal Pradesh Act, 1896
Goa	Goa was separated from the Union-Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu and was made a full-fledged State of Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganisation Act 1987. But Daman and Diu remained as Union Territory
Chhattisgarh	Formed by the Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 by dividing Madhya Pradesh on November 1, 2000
Uttarakhand	Formed by the Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 by dividing Uttar Pradesh on November 9, 2000
Jharkhand	Formed by the Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 by dividing Bihar on November 15, 2000

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS IN INDIA:

The Fundamental Rights in Indian constitution acts as a guarantee that all Indian citizens can and will live their lifes in peace as long as they live in Indian democracy. They include individual rigts common to most liberal democracies, such as equality before the law, freddom of speech and expression, freedom of association and peaceful assembly, freedom of religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil right.
Originally, the right to property was also included in the Fundamental Rights, however, the Forty-Fourth Amendment, passed in 1978, revised the status of property rights by stating that "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law."
Following are the Fudamental Rights in India

Right to Equality	Article 14 :- Equality before law and equal protection of law Article 15 :- Prohibition of discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Article 16 :- Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment Article 17 :- End of untouchability Article 18 :- Abolition of titles, Military and academic distinctions are, however, exempted
Right to Freedom	Article 19 :- It guarantees the citizens of India the following six fundamentals freedoms:- Freedom of Speech and Expression Freedom of Assembly Freedom of form Associations Freedom of Movement Freedom of Residence and Settlement Freedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade and Bussiness Article 20 :- Protection in respect of conviction for offences Article 21 :- Protection of life and personal liberty Article 22 :- Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases
Right Against Exploitation	Article 23 :- Traffic in human beings prohibited Article 24 :- No child below the age of 14 can be employed
Right to freedom of Religion	Article 25 :- Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion Article 26 :- Freedom to manage religious affairs Article 27 :- Prohibits taxes on religious grounds Article 28 :- Freedom as to attendance at religious ceremonies in certain educational institutions
Cultural and Educational Rights	Article 29 :- Protection of interests of minorities Article 30 :- Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions Article 31 :- Omitted by the 44th Amendment Act
Right to Constitutional Remedies	Article 32 :- The right to move the Supreme Court in case of their violation (called Soul and heart of the Constitution by BR Ambedkar) Forms of Writ check Habeas Corpus :- Equality before law and equal protection of law

President of India:

President of India is the head of the Union Executive. A Council of Ministers headed by Prime Minister aids and advises the President in the excersie of his function.

President of India is also Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces.

Office of President of India ==>
	Rashtrapati Bhavan

Qualification	Must be a citizen of India Completed 35 years of age Eligible to be a member of Lok Sabha Must not hold any government post. Exceptions are: President and Vice-President Governor of any state Minister of Union State
Election	Indirectly elected through ‘Electoral College’ consisting of Elected members of both the Houses of Parliament & Elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States. (No nominated members) Security deposit of Rs 15,000/- Supreme court inquires all disputes regarding President’s Election. Takes OATH in presence of Chief Justice of India, or in his absence, senior-most Judge of Supreme Court
Terms and Emoluments	5 year term Article 57 says that there is no upper limit on the number of times a person can become President Can give resignation to Vice-President before full-term Present Salary- Rs. 1,00,000/month (including allowances & emoluments)
Impeachment	Quasi-judicial procedure Can be impeached only on the ground of violation of constitution The impeachment procedure can be initiated in either House of the Parliament
Vacancy	In case of office falls vacant due to death, resignation or removal, the Vice-President act as President. It he is not available then Chief Justice, it not then senior-most Judge of the Supreme court shall act as the President of India The election is to be held within 6 months of the vacancy
Powers	Appoints PM, Ministers, Chief Justice & judge of Supreme Court & High Court, Chairman & members of UPSC, Comptroller and Auditor General, Attorney General, Chief Election Commissioner and other members of Election Commission of India, Governors, Members of Finance Commission, Ambassadors, etc Can summon & prorogue the sessions of the 2 houses & can dissolve Lok Sabha Appoints Finance Commission (after every 5 years) that recommends distribution of taxes between Union & State governments The President can promulgate 3 types of Emergencies:- National Emergency (Article 352) State Emergency (President’s Rule) (Article 356) Financial Emergency (Article 360) He is the Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces of India President appoints Chief of Army, Navy and Air force Declares wars & concludes peace subject to the approval of the Parliament No money bill or demand for grant can be introduced or moved in Parliament unless it has been recommended by the President He has the power to grant pardon, reprieve or remit of punishment or commute death sentences

Indian Defence:

• The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian defence system
• The whole administrative control of the Armed forces lies in the Ministry of Defence
• The Defence Minister (Raksha Mantri) is responsible to Parliament for all matters concerning defence of the country.
• Indian defence system has been divided into three services-


1. Army
2. Navy
3. Air Force

Organisation

The Principal task of the Ministry of Defence is to obtain policy directions of the Government on all defence and security related matters and communicate them for implementation to the Serivce Headquarters, Inter-Service Organisations, Production Establishments and Research an Development Organisations. It is also required to ensure effective implementation of the Government's policy directions and the execution of approved programmes within the allocated resources.

The principal functions of the Departments are as follows:-

• The Department of Defence deals with Integrated Defence Staff (IDS) amd three services and various Inter-Service Organisations. It is also responsible for the Defence Budget, establishment matters, defence policy, matters relating to Parliament, defence cooperation with foreign countries and coordination of all activites
• The Department of Defence Production is headed by a Secretary and deals with matters pertaining to defence production, indigenisation of imported stores, equipment and spares, planning and control of department production units of the Ordance Factory Board and Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs.)
• The Department of Defence Research and Development is headed by a Secretary, who is also the Scientific Advisor to the Raksha Mantri(Defence Minister). Its function is to advise the Government on scientific aspects of the military equipment and logistics and the formulation of research, design and development plans for equipment used by the Services.
• The Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare is headed by the Additional Secretary and deals with all resettlement, welfare and pensionary matters of Ex-Servicemen.

Integrated Defence Staff (IDS) was created on October 1, 2001 as a sequel to the decision by the Group of Ministers based on Kargil Committee Report. The staff of HQ IDS is provided from three Services, MEA, DRDO, Armed Forces HQ (AFHQ) Civil Services and DoD. IDS is presently functioning as staff in the advisory mode to the Chairman COSC, and is headed by the Chief of Integrated Defence Staff to Chairman COSC (CISC)
The three Services Headquarters, viz., the Army Headquarters, the Naval Headquarters and the Air Headquarters functions under the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS), the Chief of Naval Staff (CNS) and the Chief of the Air Staff (CAS) respectively. They are assisted by their Principal Staff Officers (PSOs). The Inter-Services Organisations, under the Department of Defence are responsible for carrying out tasks related to common needs of the three Services such as medical care, public relations and personnel managedment of civilian staff in the Defence Headquarters.
A number of Committees dealing with defence related activities assist the Raksha Mantri(Defence Minister). The Chief of Staff Committee isa forum for the Service Chiefs to discuss matters having a bearing on the activities of the Services and to advise the Ministry. The position of Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee devolves on the longest serving Chief of Staff, and consequently rotates amongst the three services.
Finance Division in the Ministry of Defence deals with all matters having a financial implication. This Division is headed by Financial Advisor (Defence Services) and is fully integrated with the Ministry of Defence and performs an advisory rotle.

Indian Army

The Indian Army is organised into seven commands:-

S.No.	Command	Headquarter
1	Western command	Chandigarh
2	Eastern command	Kolkata
3	Northern command	56 APO
4	Southern command	Pune
5	Central command	Lucknow
6	Army Training Command	Shimla
7	South Western Command	Jaipur

The Indian Army is the world's second largest army in terms of military personnel. The basic responsibility of the Army is to safeguard the territorial integrity of the nation against external aggressio. In addition, the Army is often required to assist the civil administration during internal security disturbances and in the mainntenance of law and order, in organising relief operations during natural calamities like floods, earthquakes and cyclones and in the maintenance of essential services.

The Indian Army is one of the finest armies in the world. Modernisation and upgradation of Army is a continuous process to keep Armed Forces ready to meet any challenge of tomorrow. It is based on fiver years plans. Focus and core areas of modernisation has been:-

• Improvement in the Fire Power and increased Mobiliy
• All Weather Battle Field Surveillance capability
• Night Fighting capabilities
• Enhace capability of Special Force
• Capability for Network Centric Warfare
• NBC Protection

Army has its headquarters in New Delhi.
It is head by Chief of the Army Staff and assisted by the Vice-Chief of the Army Staff and seven other Principal Staff Officers, namely, two Deputy Chief of Army Staff, Ajutant General, Quarter Master General, Master General of Ordinance, Military Secretary and Engineer-in-Chief. The army has following commands

S.No.	Command	Headquarter
1	Western command	Chandigarh
2	Eastern command	Kolkata
3	Northern command	56 APO
4	Southern command	Pune
5	Central command	Lucknow
6	Army Training Command	Shimla
7	South Western Command	Jaipur

Each under a General officer Commanding-n-Chief of the rank of a Lieutant-General. The Major Static Formation are divided into Areas, Independent Sub-Areas and sub-areas. Area is commanded by a General Officer Commanding of the rank of a Major General and an Independent Sub-Area and sub-area by a Brigadier.

Indian army is divided broadly into two main categories:-

1. Arms
2. Services

Indian Army consists of following ranks:-

1. General
2. Lt. General
3. Major General
4. Brigadier
5. Colonel
6. Lt. Colonel
7. Major
8. Captain
9. Lieutenant

Indian Air Force

Indian Air Force is organised into seven commands:-

S.No.	Command	Headquarter
1	Western command	New Delhi
2	Central command	Allahabad
3	Eastern command	Shillong
4	South western command	Jodhpur
5	Training command	Bangaluru
6	Maintenance command	Nagpur
7	Southern command	Thiruvananthapuram

The Indian Air Force was officially established on 8 October 1932.Brief History
The past 75 years have been eventful for Indian Air Force (IAF) from a flight of 'Wapitis' in 1932, to the fourth largest, professionally acclaimed, strategic Air Force responsible for guarding Nation's vital interests. From 1948 to Kargil, the IAF has always fielded wining capabilities. IAF's professional and prompt operations in peace time, at home and abroad and in peacekeeping, have earned many accolades.

The first five pilots commissioned into the Indian Air Force were H C Sircar, Subroto Mukerjee, Bhupendra Singh, A B Awan and Amarjeet Singh. A sixth officer, S N Tandon had to revert to Ground duties as he was too short. All of them were commissioned as ''Pilot Officers'' in 1933. Subroto Mukerjee later went on to become the IAF's first Indian Chief of Air Staff. Subsequent batches inducted before World_War_2 included Aspy Engineer, K K Majumdar, Narendra, R H D Singh, S N Goyal, Baba Mehar Singh, Prithpal Singh and Arjan Singh.
The Indian Air Force is headed by Chief of Air Staff with its headquarters at New Delhi. He is assisted by six Principal Staff Officers, Vice Chief of Air Staff, Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Air Officer Incharge Administration, Air Officer Incharge Maintenance, Air Officer Incharge Personnel and Training and Inspector General Flight Safety and Inspection.

S.No.	Command	Headquarter
1	Western command	New Delhi
2	Central command	Allahabad
3	Eastern command	Shillong
4	South western command	Jodhpur
5	Training command	Bangaluru
6	Maintenance command	Nagpur
7	Southern command	Thiruvananthapuram

The Air force combat fleet is made up of 45 squadrons consists a variety of fighters, fighter-bombers, fighter interceptors, bombers and transport and logistics support aircraft.

1. Air chief Marshal
2. Air Marshal
3. Air Vice Marshal
4. Air Commodore
5. Group Captain
6. Wing Commander
7. Squardron Leader
8. Flt. Lieutenant
9. Flying officers

Indin Navy

Indian Navy is organised into following commands:-

S.No.	Command	Headquarter
1	Eastern command	Vishakhapatnam
2	Southern command	Kochi
3	Western command	Mumbai

Brief History
The Indian Navy, by virtue of its capabilities, strategic positioning and robust presence in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), has been a catalyst for peace, tranquility and stability in the IOR. It has been engaged other maritime nations, extending hand of friendship and co-operation.

On India attaining Independence, the Royal Indian Navy consisted of 32 ageing vessels suitable only for coastal patrol, along with 11,000 officers and men. The senior officers were drawn from the Royal Navy, with R Adm ITS Hall, CIE, being the first Post-independence Commander-in-Chief. The prefix 'Royal' was dropped on 26 January 1950 with India being constituted as a Republic. The first Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Navy was Adm Sir Edward Parry, KCB, who handed over to Adm Sir Mark Pizey, KBE, CB, DSO in 1951. Adm Pizey also became the first Chief of the Naval Staff in 1955, and was succeeded by V Adm SH Carlill, CB, DSO.
On 22 April 1958 V Adm RD Katari assumed office as the first Indian Chief of the Naval Staff.
Indian Navy is headed by Chief of Navel Staff with headquarters at New Delhi. He is assisted by Vice Chief of Naval Staff, Chief of Personnel, Chief of Material and Deputy Chief of Naval Staff. The Navy is organised into following commands:-

S.No.	Command	Headquarter
1	Eastern command	Vishakhapatnam
2	Southern command	Kochi
3	Western command	Mumbai

Ranks:-

1. Navy
2. Admiral
3. Vice Admiral
4. Read Admiral
5. Commodore
6. Captain
7. Commander
8. Lt Commander
9. Lieutenant
10. Sub-Lieutenant

The Indian Navy is divided into the following broad categories

• Administration
• Logistics and Material
• Training
• The Fleets
• The Naval Aviation
and
• The Submarine Arm.